The Somalis
Excerpts from The Somalis: Their History and Culture By Diana Briton Putman & Mohamood Cabdi Noor, Published by Center for Applied Linguistics Cultural Orientation Project

Introduction
Somalis have a long tradition of going abroad to travel, work, or study. Today, about 1 million Somalis live scattered around the world. While the great majority are refugees living in neighboring countries in East Africa and in the Middle East, there are Somali communities throughout Europe and North America. The first Somali immigrants came to the United States in the 1920s and settled in the New York area.

In the mid-1980s, small numbers of Somalis were admitted to the United States as refugees. In 1990, as a result of the civil war, their numbers increased. These refugees live in different parts of the United States, with larger concentrations in New York, Washington, D.C., Boston, Los Angeles, San Diego, Atlanta, and Detroit.

The Somali People
Before the civil war, the population of Somalia was estimated at 7.7 million people. It is believed that about 400,000 people died of famine or disease or were killed in the war, and nearly 45% of the population was displaced inside Somalia or fled to neighboring countries, to the Middle East, or to the West.

Somalia's population is mostly rural [and 80% support themselves by farming, herding, or both]. Except for a small number who rely on fishing, the rest of the population are urban dwellers. In the past few years, civil war and famine have changed urban demographics, as hundreds of thousands of displaced Somalis have poured into the cities seeking sanctuary and relief.

Ethnically and culturally, Somalia is one of the most homogeneous countries in Africa. Somalia has its minorities: There are people of Bantu descent living in farming villages in the south, and Arab enclaves in the coastal cities. But the great majority of the people are ethnic Somalis who speak dialects of the same language, Somali, and who practice the same religion, Islam.

In a land of sparse rainfall, … it is the nomadic way of life, with its love of freedom and open spaces, that is celebrated in Somali poetry and folklore. Clans constitute the heart of Somali society, and the central challenge facing modern Somalia is how to unify a country whose people often give greater allegiance to lineage than to nation. It is important to note, however, that while Somalis have traditionally fought among themselves, their greater identity as Somalis takes hold in front of strangers.

The Land
Situated in eastern Africa, Somalia forms the cap of the Horn of Africa [and is] slightly smaller than Texas. Somalia is mostly flat, rising in the southern and central regions to a few hundred meters above sea level near the Ethiopian border. Somalia's long coastline, the longest in Africahas been vital to its trade with the Middle East and the rest of East Africa.

Climate is the primary factor in much of Somali life. With hot, dry weather year-round, most of Somalia has a semi-arid to arid environment suitable primarily for the nomadic pastoralism that more than half the population practices. 

History
Somalis claim descent from Arabian families who settled on the Somali coast 1,000 years ago. Although there undoubtedly is an infusion of Arab blood among Somalis, historians and linguists trace the origins of the Somali people to a much earlier time in the region.

Among ancient Egyptians, Somalia was known as the Land of Punt and was renowned for its frankincense and myrrh, which it still exports. In the 10th century, Chinese merchants returned home from Somalia with giraffes, leopards, and tortoises for the imperial menagerie. By this time, Arab and Persian merchants had established towns along the coasts of the northern plains and the Indian Ocean. The process of Somali conversion to Islam in the north began very early, probably in the 11th and 12th centuries.

When the borders of present-day Somalia were set by the colonial powers toward the end of the 19th century, large numbers of Somalis were left out, and today there are an estimated three million Somalis living in eastern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The existence of Somalis outside the country's national borders continues to be a source of conflict in the region.  

Colonial Occupation
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 stimulated European expansion into the region. By the end of the century, Somali people were living under the rule of four foreign powers: the British (in north central Somalia and in northeast Kenya), the Italians (in southern Somalia), the French (in the northwest, in what is now Djibouti), and the Ethiopians (in the Ogaden region). The impact of colonialism on Somalia's economy was limited. To the colonial powers, Somalia's value was more strategic than economic.

The rivalry between Allied and Axis powers in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s played out in the Horn of Africa. Early in 1940, Italy invaded British Somaliland and threw out the British. A year later the British retook the protectorate, conquering Italian Somalia and the Ogaden as well, and placed all three under British administration. Britain administered the entire area for nearly a decade. This period witnessed a growing national awareness, as more and more Somalis questioned the legitimacy of colonial rule and called for political unity.

Independence
On July 1, 1960, former British and Italian Somalia merged to form the Somali Republic.

Independence brought not only unity but democracy. For the next nine years, the citizens of the new republic enjoyed a high level of political participation. During this era of parliamentary democracy, clan and regional differences were worked out through frequent democratic elections involving many political parties.

The Revolutionary Regime
By the late 1960s, the government was perceived as inefficient and corrupt and was accused of improving relations with Ethiopia at the expense of its stated commitment to Pan-Somalism. In October 1969, the army, under Major General Mohammed Siyaad Barre, took over. Closely allied with the Soviet Union, the regime adopted as its creed "scientific socialism," based on three elements: community development through self reliance, a variant of socialism based on Marxist principles, and Islam. The socialist regime sought to improve the status of minorities and women, and, after introducing a Somali writing system in 1972, launched a countrywide literacy campaign.

Most of these actions had popular support. However, there was growing opposition to the regime among Islamic scholars, in Somalia and abroad, as a result of the adoption of the Latin alphabet for the Somali script and the introduction of laws that were seen to be in conflict with Islamic law. The Islamic opposition was crushed by the military, and a number of Islamic leaders were executed.

Despite the new regime's popularity, it soon became clear that Somalia's experiment with democracy had ended. Shortly after taking over, Siyaad Barre abolished the National Assembly, suspended the constitution, prohibited any form of political association, and put some prominent politicians and members of the previous government into custody.

The Soviet Union, which already had a foothold in the army in the 1960s, became the dominant foreign influence in the 1970s. As Somalia became more pro-Soviet, its relations with the United States became strained, and in the early 1970s, the United States suspended aid to Somalia.

With the fall of the Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, political dynamics in the region changed. In November 1977, Siyaad Barre expelled the Soviets from Somalia. By the spring of 1978, as a result of the Soviet shift of support to Ethiopia, Somalia lost all the territory it had won.

Abandoned by the Soviets, Siyaad Barre turned toward the West. From 1978 onward, closer ties were created with Europe and the United States, as well as with Arab countries. Large amounts of foreign aid flowed in, some of it in the form of military equipment.

The United States' decision to begin a military assistance program in Somalia was precipitated by the fall of the Shah of Iran, the United States' closest ally in the Gulf. In exchange for defensive military equipment, Somalia agreed to provide the United States with access to Somali ports and airfields. In the last years of the Siyaad Barre government, the United States reduced its military and development aid programs as the regime became increasingly repressive and guilty of human rights violations.

The opposition, however, did not trust the government and continued to fight both in the north and in the central regions. By the end of December 1990, the conflict had spread to the capital, Mogadishu. On January 27, 1991 Siyaad Barre's regime collapsed. After twice failing to regain power, he left the country in early 1992.

Civil War
Hostilities did not end with the ouster of Siyaad Barre. Clan competition for power and the desire to settle old scores continued, with disastrous results for the civilian population. Nomadic Somalis, whose culture is egalitarian, found it especially difficult to accept the growing inequities in Somali society.

Mogadishu and much of southern and central Somalia slipped into anarchy. In the absence of an accepted government, power and food were in the hands of those with guns. Over the course of the year, several hundred thousand Somalis died from violence, disease, and famine. In August 1992, an estimated one fourth of Somalia's population, about 1.5 million people, was in danger of starvation. A study by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control showed that in the city of Baidoa, at least 40% of the population had died between August and November. Relief organizations estimated that by early 1993, one half of all Somali children under five years old had died.

Armed bandits, who looted warehouses and food shipments, greatly aggravated problems of food distribution. These bandits were under the authority of local warlords who filled the power vacuum created by the government's collapse.

Social Structure and Gender Roles
Somalis belong to clans and sub-clans. These hierarchical descent groups, each said to originate with a single male ancestor, are a central fact of Somali life.

In Somali society, clans serve as a source of great solidarity as well as conflict. Clans combine forces for protection, access to water and good land, and political power. The ever-shifting world of clan politics is captured in a saying popular among nomads: My full brother and I against my father, my father's household against my uncle's household, our two households (my uncle's and mine) against the rest of the immediate kin, the immediate kin against non-immediate members of my clan, my clan against other clans, and my nation and I against the world.

The society of the pastoral Somalis is fundamentally democratic. Traditionally, decisions are made by councils of men. These councils are egalitarian, sometimes to the point of anarchy, although age, lineage seniority, and wealth can have influence.

While Somalia's political culture is basically egalitarian, social and political change have created new patterns of social life. In recent years, a new urban group, educated in Western-type schools and working as merchants or in government, has emerged. These urbanites enjoy more wealth, better access to government services, and greater educational opportunities for their children than do other sectors of society.

For all Somalis, the family is the ultimate source of personal security and identity. Somalis typically live in nuclear families, although older parents may move in with one of their children. Households are usually monogamous; in polygamous households (one fifth of all families), wives usually have their own residences and are responsible for different economic activities. Traditionally, marriages were arranged, since marriage was seen as a way to cement alliances. Increasingly, however, parents are willing to consider love interests if they think the match is suitable.

Somali women have more freedom to become educated, to work, and to travel than do most other Muslim women. [However, w]omen are still expected to keep the family's honor by remaining virgins until marriage. It is said that female circumcision and infibulation,* performed on 98% of Somali girls between the ages of 8 and 10, represent an effort to control women's sexuality, since the practice is not required by Islam. Many women suffer all of their lives from a great variety of medical problems stemming from this practice.

*Female circumcision, as practiced in Somalia, involves the removal of the clitoris and the labia. With infibulation, the vagina is then sewn up, leaving only a tiny opening, which is enlarged for marriage and enlarged once again for childbirth.

Language and Literacy
Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak either English or Italian as well. Swahili may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya. Somali had no written form until 1972, when a Somali script, based on the Roman alphabet, was adopted. Great progress was made in the development of national literacy, particularly in the rural areas. A 1990 UN estimate put the national literacy rate at 24%.

Education
Before the colonial era, Koranic schools provided traditional Islamic education. Upon completion of the Koran, students were introduced to theology, Arabic grammar, literature, and sharia (Islamic law).

The colonial era introduced Western-style education. Educational opportunities expanded after the Somali script was introduced in the 1970s as a medium of instruction at the primary, intermediate, and secondary levels. Basic education became compulsory. Secondary education, however, remained beyond the grasp of most Somalis. In the late 1980s, the number of students in secondary school was less than 10% of the total in primary schools. In recent years, an Islamic resurgence has led to a revival of Islamic education in both urban and rural areas. Two years of civil war destroyed most of Somalia's educational institutions, and many of the educated elite left the country.

Values
Many Somali values are similar to American ones. Somalis believe strongly in independence, democracy, egalitarianism, and individualism. Like Americans, Somalis value generosity. Somalis respect strength and often challenge others to test their limits. Somali justice is based on the notion of "an eye for an eye." Somalis are a proud people, and their boasting can stretch the truth more than a little. Saving face is very important to them, so indirectness and humor are often used in conversation. Somalis are also able to see the humor in a situation and to laugh at themselves. While Somalis can be opinionated, they are generally willing to reconsider their views if they are presented with adequate evidence. Somalis have a long history of going abroad to work or to study and are known for their ability to adjust to new situations.

Somalis deeply value the family. The strength of family ties provides a safety net in times of need, and the protection of family honor is important. Loyalty is an important value and can extend beyond family and clan. Somalis value their friendships; once a Somali becomes a friend, he is usually one for life.

Religion
Most Somalis are Sunni Muslims. Islam is the principal faith and is vitally important to the Somali sense of national identity, although traces of pre-Islamic traditional religions exist in Somali folk spirituality.

In recent years, Islamic fundamentalism has gained support, with Somalis seeking comfort in a faith that offers an explanation for their national disaster. According to traditional Islamic belief, social turmoil is God's punishment for straying from the correct path; the way to regain God's favor is to repent collectively and redirect society to Islamic precepts. Thus, fundamentalism has served as a rallying point for Somalis exhausted from the factionalism and anarchy that has destroyed their country; it attracts Somalis who are intellectually adrift and seek the reassurance of a rigid code of conduct.

Art, Poetry, and Song
In a nomadic culture, where one's possessions are frequently moved, there is little reason for the plastic arts to be highly developed. The epitome of Somali artistry is oral.

Facility with speech is highly valued in Somali society. Since pride is important in Somali society, the ability to use language to save face is essential. Humor, based on puns and word play, is used to blunt criticism and to extricate oneself from embarrassing situations.

It is in the art of oral poetry and song that Somalis excel. Whether used as a challenge, a courting technique, or political rhetoric, poetry and song remain a vital part of Somali culture, enhanced rather than diminished by radio broadcasting.

Names
Somalis do not have surnames in the Western sense. To identify a Somali, three names must be used: a given name followed by the father's given name and the grandfather's. Most names have meaning, and certain names are given to denote time of birth, physical characteristics, birth order, and so on.